2022–23–A

1. General background: sets and operations on them, Complex numbers: definition (via ordered pairs), addition and multiplication, inverses, adjoint, absolute value. Real and complex polynomials and their roots.
2. Fields: Definition, properties, examples: Rationals, reals, complex numbers, integers mod p.
3. Linear equations over fields, matrices and elementary row operations, rank of a matrix, solutions of homogeneous and non homogeneous systems of linear equations and the connections between them.
4. Vector spaces over fields, subspaces, bases and dimensions, coordinates change of coordinate matrix, row rank as rank of a subspace, sums, direct sums of subspaces and the dimension theorem.
5. Matrices multiplication, the algebra of square matrices, inverse determinants: properties, Cramer’s rule, adjoint and its use for finding the inverse.
6. Linerar transformationsbasic propertieskernel and image of a linear trasformationrepresentaion of linear transformations by matrices and the effect of change of bases.linear functionals, dual bases

1. Lines and planes. Cross product. Vector valued functions of a single variable, curves in the plane, tangents, motion on a curve.
2. Functions of several variables: open and closed sets, limits, continuity, differentiability, directional derivatives, partial derivatives, the gradient, scalar and vector fields, the chain rule, the Jacobian. Implicit differentiation and the implicit function theorem. Extremum problems in the plane and in space: the Hessian and the second derivatives test, Lagrange multipliers.
3. Line integrals in the plane and in space, definition and basic properties, work, independence from the path, connection to the gradient, conservative vector field, construction of potential functions. Applications to ODEs: exact equations and integrating factors. Line integral of second kind and arclength.
4. Double and triple integrals: definition and basic properties, Fubini theorem. Change of variable and the Jacobian, polar coordinates in the plane and cylindrical and spherical coordinates in space. Green’s theorem in the plane.
5. Parametric representation of surfaces in space, normals, the area of a parametrized surface, surface integrals including reparametrizations
6. Curl and divergence of vector fields. The theorems of Gauss and Stokes.

1. Real numbers. Supremum and Infimum of a set. 2. Convergent sequences, subsequences, Cauchy sequences. The Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem. Limit superior and limit inferior. 3. Series. Partial sums, convergent and divergent series, Cauchy criterion. Series of non-negative terms. The root and the ratio tests. Conditional and absolute convergence. The Leibnitz test for series with alternating signs. Rearrangements of series (without proof) 4. The limit of a function. Continuous functions. Continuity of the elementary functions. Properties of functions continuous on a closed interval: boundedness and attainment of extrema. Uniform continuity, Cantor?s theorem. 5. The derivative of a function. Mean value theorems. Derivatives of higher order. L’Hospital’s rule. Taylor’s theorem. Lagrange remainder formula.

The aim of the course is to study main principles of probability theory. Such themes as probability spaces, random variables, probability distributions are given in details.Some applications are also considered.1. Probability space: sample space, probability function, finite symmetric probability space, combinatorial methods, and geometrical probabilities.2. Conditional probability, independent events, total probability formula, Bayes formula. 3. Discrete random variable, special distributions: uniform, binomial, geometric, negative binomial, hypergeometric and Poisson distribution. Poisson process.4. Continuous random variable, density function, cummulative distribution function. Special distributions: uniform, exponential, gamma and normal. Transformations of random variables. Distribution of maximum and minimum. Random variable of mixed type.5. Moments of random variable. Expectation and variance. Chebyshev inequality.6. Random vector, joint probability function, joint density function, marginal distributions. Conditional density, covariance and correlation coefficient.7. Central Limit Theorem. Normal approximation. Law of Large Numbers.

1. Integral calculus in one variable and its application: the integral, Riemann sums, integrability of bounded functions with countably many discontinuity points (the proofs only for continuous functions and monotone functions), antiderivatives and the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, change of variables and integrations by parts, partial fractions (without proofs). Applications of integral calculus: computation of areas, volume of the solid of revolution, the length of a smooth curve. Improper integral, and convergence tests for positive functions, application to series.
2. Functions of several variables: open, closed, and compact sets, level curves and surfaces, vector valued functions, paths and path-connectedness.
3. Limits and continuity in several variables: arithmetic of limits, Weierstrass theorem, intermediate value theorem.
4. Multivariable differential calculus: partial and directional derivatives, differentiability and the tangent plane, the chain rule, the orthogonality of the gradient to the level surfaces, implicit function theorem for a curve in the plane and a surface in the space (without a proof), the Hessian, Taylor approximation of order 2, critical points (classification only in dimension 2), Extremum problem, including Lagrange multipliers and gradient descent.
5. Integration in dimension 2: Reimann integral in dimension 2, change of variables and Fubini theorem (without proofs), changing the order of integration, polar coordinates, computation of volumes. If time permits: integration in dimension 3.

Prerequisites: 20119531 Linear Algebra

Brief syllabus

1. Operations over sets, logical notation, relations.

2. Enumeration of combinatorial objects: integer numbers, functions, main principles of combinatorics.

3. Elementary combinatorics: ordered and unordered sets and multisets, binomial and multinomial coefficients.

4. Principle of inclusion and exclusion, Euler function.

5. Graphs: representation and isomorphism of graphs, valency, paths and cycles.

6. Recursion and generating functions: recursive definitions, usual and exponential generating functions, linear recurrent relations with constant coefficients.

7. (Optional) Modular arithmetics: congruences of integer numbers, $\mathbb{Z}_m$, invertible elements in $\mathbb{Z}_m$.

1. Fields: the definition of a field, complex numbers.

2. Linear equations: elementary operations, row reduction, homogeneous and non-homogeneous equations, parametrization of solutions.

3. Vector spaces: examplex, subspaces, linear independence, bases, dimension.

4. Matrix algebra: matrix addition and multiplication, elementary operations, the inverse matrix, the determinant and Cramer’s law. Linear transformations: examples, kernel and image, matrix representation.

1. Complex valued-functions and the complex exponential. Fourier coefficients of piecewise continuous periodic functions. Basic operations and their effects on Fourier coefficients: translation, modulation, convolutions, derivatives.
2. Uniform convergence: Cesaro means, the Dirichlet and Fejer kernels, Fejer’s theorem. The Weierstrass approximation theorem for trigonometric polynomials and for polynomials. Uniqueness of Fourier coefficients. The Riemann-Lebesgue lemma. Hausdorff’s moment problem. Convergence of partial sums and Fourier series for $C^2$-functions.
3. Pointwise convergence: Dini’s criterion. Convergence at jump discontinuities and Gibbs phenomenon.
4. $L^2$-theory: orthonormal sequences and bases. Best approximations, Bessel’s inequality, Parseval’s identity and convergence in $L^2$.
5. Applications to partial differential equations: the heat and wave equations on an interval with constant boundary conditions, the Dirichlet problem for the Laplace equation on the disk, the Poisson kernel.

Bibliography:

• Korner, Fourier analysis
• Stein and Shakarchi, Fourier analysis

Metric spaces:

closed sets, open sets, Cauchy sequences, completeness, compactness, Theorem of Heine–Borel, continuity and uniform continuity of functions, uniform convergence of sequences of functions.

Measure theory:

algebras, measures and outer measures, measurable sets, discrete measure spaces, Lebesgue measure on the real line, measurable functions, Lebesgue integral, dominated convergence theorem, $L_p$-spaces as complete normed spaces. Time-permitting: signed measures and absolute continuity of measures and the Radon-Nykodim theorem.

1. Counting states. Combinatorics. Distinguishable and indistinguishable particles. Ordered and unordered arrangements. Permutations without replacement and with replacement. Combinations without and with replacement. Multisets. N 1/2 spins. Cell gas. Fermions, para-fermions, bosons.
2. Repeated experiments, outcomes. Frequentist, Bayesian, and Kolmogorov probability, interrelation. Reproducible and irreproducible experiments. Probability in a finite universe. Expanding universe. Time dependent probability. Laws of probability. Mutually exclusive events/outcomes. Conditional probability. Bayes rule. Geometric probability, Betrand paradox.
3. Random variables. Discrete random variables. Probability of a random variable. Functions of random variables. Mean, variance, moments in general. Spin 1/2. Paramagnetism. Binomial distribution. Large numbers. Most probable state. Rare events. Radioactive decay. Poisson distribution. Information entropy. Maximum entropy principle without constraints. Uniform distribution. Maximum entropy principle with energy constraint. Boltzmann distribution.
4. Gas of particles in the velocity space. Continuous random variable. Probability density. Mean, variance, moments. Delta-function. Maxwellian (normal, gaussian) distribution. Localized magnetic moment in a magnetic field. Classical paramagnetism. Fluctuations of magnetization. Other observed distributions: merging black holes. Line width: Breit? Wigner distribution. Entropy. Uniform distribution. Particle size distribution of aerosols and mass distribution in the Universe: log-normal distribution. Collisions in accelerators: from binomial distribution to Poisson.
5. Multivariate continuous distributions. Joint and marginal distribution. Gas in 3D. Most probable components and most probable magnitude of the velocity. Isotropic and anisotropic distributions. Plasma pressure tensor. Covariance, correlation. Transformation of variables in joint distributions. Beams in plasmas. Cosmic rays: energy spectrum and pitch-angle distribution. Covariance vs independence.
6. Laws of large numbers. Gaussian as the limiting distribution for the Binomial and and Poisson distributions. Chebyshev’s inequality. Independent random variables. Sum of random variables. Convolution. Convolution of Gaussians. Central limit theorem. Applications and limitations of the theorem: velocity component of air molecules, Coulomb scattering, energy loss of charged particle traversing thin gas layer (Landau distribution).
7. Statistics in physics: from data to hypothesis. Main sequence: assume theory, devise an experiment, measure relevant parameters, estimate uncertainties, quantify agreement with theory, accept of reject. Examples: search for Higgs in LHC, dark matter in the Universe. More examples: CP violation.
8. Measurements and errors. Propagation of errors. Measured distribution vs true distribution: convolution with the resolution function (detector). Assumption of normal distribution of measurement uncertainties. Distortion of measured distribution: line width.
9. Measurements, samples, population, sample statistics. Sample mean and variance. Central limit theorem in statistics. Parameter estimates: frequentist and Bayesian approach. Prior and posterior probabilities. Basic estimators. Maximum-likelihood method: distance from the Sun to the center of the galaxy, mass distribution from LIGO.
10. LHC experiments: application of Chi-squared. Degrees of freedom. Nuisance parameters. Role of uncertainties (overestimate vs underestimate). Unbiased estimators. Correlation functions.
11. Hypothesis testing. Simple and composite hypotheses; statistical tests; Neyman?Pearson; generalised likelihood-ratio; Student?s t; Fisher?s F; goodness of fit.
12. (Optional) Random walk. Diffusion processes.
13. (Optional) Monte-Carlo methods.